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The National Center for Learning Disabilities provides an overview in its
fact sheet entitled, "LD at a Glance". The NCLD table below
illustrates some of the more pervasive LD types that affect approximately five
percent of all children enrolled in public schools.*
What you should know about learning
disabilities (LD):
 | LDs
are specific neurological disorders that affect the brain's ability to
store, process or communicate information.
|
| "Specific
learning disability" (SLD) is the term used in the federal law for any
LD.
|
| LDs
can affect different aspects of learning and functioning - see the chart
below for specific types of learning disabilities and related disorders.
|
| LDs
can be compensated for and even overcome through alternate ways of learning,
accommodations and modifications.
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| According
to the US Department of Education, LDs affect approximately 5% of all
children enrolled in public schools.*
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| LDs
can occur with other disorders (AD/HD, Information Processing Disorders).
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| LDs
are NOT the same as mental retardation, autism, deafness, blindness,
behavioral disorders or laziness.
|
|
LDs
are not the result of economic disadvantage, environmental factors or
cultural differences.
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*Twenty-third Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation
of IDEA, US Department of Education, 2001
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LD Terminology
Disability:
|
Dyslexia |
Dyscalculia |
Dysgraphia |
Dyspraxia |
Auditory
Processing Disorder |
Visual
Processing Disorder |
Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) |
Area
of difficulty:
|
Processing
language |
Math
skills |
Written
expression |
Fine
motor skills |
Interpreting
auditory information |
Interpreting
visual information |
Concentration
& focus |
Symptoms
include trouble with:
|
Reading,
writing & spelling |
Computation,
remembering math facts, concepts of time & money |
Handwriting,
spelling, composition |
Coordination,
manual dexterity |
Language
development, reading |
Reading,
writing & math |
Over-activity,
distractibility & impulsivity |
Example:
|
Letters
and words may be written or pronounced backwards |
Difficulty
learning to count by 2s, 3s, 4s |
Illegible
handwriting, difficulty organizing ideas |
Trouble
with scissors, buttons, drawing |
Difficulty
anticipating how a speaker will end a sentence |
Difficulty
distinguishing letters like "h" and "n" |
Can't
sit still, loses interest quickly |
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I
would love to put an in-depth summary of each disability on this page.
But, if I wrote it all down here, it would take up so much space that nobody
would ever read it. But if you are interested in deeper exploration of a
disability, you can follow this link to
National Center for Disabilities
website. They are an excellent resource and have put together
comprehensive, user-friendly fact sheets.
LD
Infozone has a page that provides fact
sheets and excellent summaries for most of the disabilities in my table
plus several recent additions to the LD scope.
LD
and the Arts- Please go here! I won't ask you to go any where else
again. I promise. This is a short page, but it is very
powerful. Just read the bottom section on "Arts as a means of
assessment". I know students out there who are just waiting for
you to read this section.
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The Federal Government has
compiled definitions for ten areas of disability that impact individual
ability to learn. For the complete list of definitions, go to Federal
Definitions.
Within
the ten Federally defined disabilities is the area designated as Specific Learning
Disability. The majority of students with Individual Education Plans
(IEPs) at LHS fall within this disability category. For this reason, we
will discuss this topic in detail and offer some ways to help
students with this problem.
The
Federal Definition:
The term, "Specific
Learning Disability", means "a disorder in one
or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in
using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect
ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical
calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia."
Sounds intimidating
doesn't it? It gets worse. Within the psychological processes are
seven cognitive areas that can be affected, disrupted, or impaired. You
often see one or more of these seven cognitive areas cited in IEPs. Now
you know where they came from. The cognitive areas cited are:
Long Term Retrieval Short Term Memory Processing Speed Auditory Processing Visual Processing Comprehension/Knowledge Fluid Reasoning
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J.L. Horn and R.B.
Cattell developed the theory of "Academic Issues Related to
Weaknesses in Cognitive Testing". It describes problems or academic
issues that may arise in the classroom when a student's cognitive testing
indicates a weakness in one of the seven areas. The table below may be
helpful in identifying students in your class who may have cognitive deficits or
problems. It shows that if a kid has "this", it may show up as
"that".
Horn Cattell Theory
Cognitive Cluster Descriptions
|
Academic Issues
|
| Long
Term Retrieval |
phonics, spelling,
math facts, memory for data, memory for grammar rules, and fill in the
blank responses. |
| Short
Term Memory |
following oral
directions, note taking during class lecture, and working memory for daily
learning. |
| Processing
Speed |
skimming visual
information, copy tasks, proofreading tasks, miscues in reading, alignment
in math problems, copying to answer sheets, reading rate, and handwriting. |
| Auditory
Processing |
phonics acquisition,
spelling, learning to read, following directions and remembering details,
foreign language acquisition. |
| Visual
Processing |
visual overload on
tests and papers, reading rate, difficulty copying from the board,
difficulty with pictures, charts, graphs, and maps, finding specific
information on a page. |
| Comprehension/Knowledge |
weak vocabulary
skills, limited background knowledge, reading comprehension, weakness in
written language. |
| Fluid
Reasoning |
abstract reasoning,
math problem solving, inferential reading comprehension, generalizing
rules, organizational skills, setting work priorities, term paper
organization, and synthesizing information from several sources. |
What follows is a brief definition for each cognitive
area. The definition is accompanied by the academic issues that are
concomitant to each area and recommendations/ accommodations that may help make
the learning process less frustrating for our students. The definitions
and some of the recommendations come from the Woodcock /Johnson report generator
from the WJR Psycho educational Test Battery. Other accommodations
are derived from experience.
Long-Term
Retrieval is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it
later through association.
Academic
Issues:
Student may experience weaknesses in phonics, remembering rules for grammar and
spelling, memorizing dates and factual information, and memorizing vocabulary in
Science, Social Studies, and English.
Accommodations:
|
Allow
use of calculator for math and science assignments |
|
Graphic
organizers/templates
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Allow
additional time to finish tests and written class assignments |
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Preferential
seating |
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Agenda
book for all assignments
|
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Break
long term assignments in smaller, sequential steps |
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Provide
a time frame/due dates for long term assignments or research papers |
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Access
to computer with spelling and grammar editors |
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Word
banks on quizzes, tests, and exams |
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Use
of class notes on tests (this is an accommodation, not a modification) |
|
Open
book exams if kids consistently fail written tests
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Provide
study guides prior to tests and exams |
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Short
Term Memory is the
ability to store information in the immediate situation and then retrieve it
within a few seconds at most.
Academic
Issues: difficulty
following oral directions, multiple step directions, taking notes from lecture,
remembering strings of numbers, phone numbers, sets of numbers, remembering what
was read at the beginning of a paragraph, working memory for daily living.
Accommodations:
|
Always
pair oral instructions with written back-up. |
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Allow
use of calculator or facts charts for math and science. |
|
Repeat
directions, have student explain the directions (to you, not in front of the
class) |
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Write
important lecture points on the board. |
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Check
student's notes for accuracy. |
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Provide
class notes for student to use, copy, or keep. |
|
Write
out directions when sending student to an unfamiliar room or location. |
|
Have
the student keep an address and phone number note book |
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Processing
Speed involves
the ability to perform clerical-speed type of tasks quickly, particularly when
measured under pressure to maintain focused attention. Impacts efficient
processing of visual symbols and “signs” in math as well learning beginning
sound symbol relationships in early reading and spelling.
Academic
Issues: Student
may have difficulty with skimming visual information, copying
tasks/proofing tasks, miscues in reading, alignment in math,
copying to answer sheets, reading rate, and handwriting.
Recommendations:
|
Do
not require the student to work under time pressure. |
|
Place the emphasis in evaluation on accuracy rather than speed.
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|
Because
the student has difficulty performing tasks rapidly under pressure, |
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provide the student with ample time to complete work |
|
Shorten
the assignments so they can be accomplished within the allotted time.
|
|
The student may need extra time to complete math, reading, and writing
tasks. |
|
Closely monitor independent work to
ensure comprehension
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|
Un-timed PSAT/SAT tests should be an option.
|
|
Encourage the use of graph paper in math. |
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Auditory
Processing is the
analysis and synthesis of auditory patterns and sounds. It’s the ability to
perceive speech under distracting condition. Includes the ability to process and
discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted conditions.
Auditory processing impacts early reading acquisition, especially phonics and
spelling, learning new languages and music, following oral directions, learning
new information that is not meaningful such as vocabulary and concepts.
Academic Issues: difficulty
in interpreting lectures and taking accurate notes, following oral directions, phonics,
reading, spelling, foreign language acquisition.
Recommendations:
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Student
may benefit from specific training in phonemic segmentation and sound
blending. |
|
Give
clear, direct instructions for all tasks, limited in length and
complexity. |
|
Preferential
seating. |
|
As
much as possible, present all new information so that student
simultaneously hears and sees what is expected to be learned. |
|
Because
of a deficit in auditory processing, do not require the student to take a
foreign language. |
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Peer tutor for assistance in note taking. |
|
Visual
outlines and graphic organizers should be used for tasks involving
listening. |
|
Allow
extra time for reading and writing activities. |
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Visual
Processing is the ability to fluently and accurately, though not
necessarily rapidly, identify visual patterns and includes the ability to store
and recall visual representations. Visual processing impacts the ability to use
and remember visual symbols as well as to see parts as a whole (closure).
It is the same skill as Processing speed but without the timed and motor
components.
Academic
Issues: inability to distinguish the difference between letters, shapes,
objects, or patterns, visual overload leading to confusion, problems copying
from the board or overhead, very slow reading pace, extreme difficulty with oral
reading, staying between or on the lines, lining up math problems.
Accommodations:
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Use index card or place
marker when reading |
|
Group
multiple choice questions and answers in sets of no more than five items. |
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Print,
don't write (cursive) on the board or overhead or on worksheets. |
|
Read
written instructions out loud to all students. |
|
Encourage/allow
oral reports instead of written reports. |
|
Allow
the use of computer for writing assignments. |
|
Use
calculator and graph paper for math work. |
|
Tape
record lectures. |
|
Peer
note taking, or allow student to copy another's notes. |
|
Check
the student's notes for accuracy. |
|
Provide
a copy of class notes. |
|
Provide
formulas for math equations. |
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Comprehension/Knowledge
is the
ability to accumulate and assimilate information from previous learning
experiences so that it can be applied to similar learning tasks. It measures a
person’s acquired knowledge, ability to communicate knowledge and the ability
to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures.
Academic
Issues: Student may demonstrate weak vocabulary skills, difficulty with
word retrieval,
limited background
knowledge, reading and comprehension, and weakness in
written language. This background knowledge may be affected by experience.
Recommendations:
|
Activate
Student’s common experiences to help relate words to his own personal
knowledge.
|
|
Pre-teach
background knowledge, vocabulary, and key concepts as necessary |
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Tell
the student during a lecture that certain points are important. |
|
Use
verbal organizational cues when lecturing, such as “first, second, and
then the most important point … |
|
Use
of mapping techniques |
|
Provide
a list of what to think about when reading |
|
Pre-teach
vocabulary.
|
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Use
techniques that will help the student relate new knowledge to his/her
existing knowledge |
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Develop
study guides, vocabulary handouts, and presentation outlines for class
lectures.
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| When
presenting directions and discussing concepts, use vocabulary |
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Fluid
reasoning is the ability to reason, form concepts and solve problems
using unfamiliar information or novel procedures. These skills are important in
learning to problem solve, in drawing inferences from relationships, and
comprehending implications. Fluid Reasoning impacts higher level reading skills
(inferential questions). Difficulty generalizing learned information from one
setting to another, organizing one’s physical space.
Academic
Issues: Students with weaknesses in fluid reasoning can often gather
information about
topics but have difficulty in
knowing where to start and what to include in
reports. They can often do work with the teacher, but can’t do it when left
alone,
and they may need things repeated 2 or 3 times before they understand term paper
organization, abstract reasoning, organizational skills, generalizing rules.
Recommendations:
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Relate
tasks to information the student already knows.
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Use
concrete cues in all directions. Tell
the student exactly what to do at each step.
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Use
manipulative and concrete objects whenever possible to illustrate the
concepts.
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Limit
the amount of material presented at one time.
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Have
student verbalize what he/she has learned.
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Provide
ample opportunity for repetition and review.
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Select
courses that do not require a high level of abstract reasoning.
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Provide
student with activities that involve finding solutions to problems.
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Provide
ample opportunities for repetition and review.
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